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送别的桥——灞桥风雪 

央视国际 (2005年10月22日 10:06)

　　在唐朝的长安，有两座桥十分著名——城东的灞桥和城西的咸阳桥。

　　当时，人们东行送人，多在灞桥折柳赠别，而对要西行的人，则多在咸阳桥挥泪相送。灞桥和咸阳桥成了两座送别的桥，留下许多动人的诗句。

　　眼前的桥墩，就是令人们充满想象的灞桥遗址。

　　2004年10月，灞河水的急剧下切，使这十个桥礅洗去了蒙在身上的泥沙，露出本来的模样。可以看到，每个桥礅都有3米宽，东西横跨灞河80多米长，可以想见这在千年前的唐朝是何等的壮观。河床上龟裂的泥土诉说着灞桥古老的故事……

　　灞桥位于长安城东12公里处的灞河上面。古代长安人向东送行，往往以灞河为界，送人出长安城到灞河后就要在灞桥上分别了。

　　这是上个世纪初日本学者拍摄的灞桥最后的模样，通过它我们仿佛回到了当年的长安。

　　若是在古代长安，这个地方应该是一派柳色空朦，早在秦汉时，人们就在灞河两岸筑堤植柳，阳春时节，柳絮随风飘舞，好似冬日雪花飞扬。到了隋唐，这里已是“柳色如烟絮如雪”的风景名胜之地了。于是“灞柳风雪”作为灞桥一道独特的景致成为“关中八景”之一。此后，以“风雪”作为比喻，成为诗人们咏柳的一种常用手法。

　　按照《西安府志》的记录，当年灞桥两岸，筑堤五里，栽柳万株，游人摩肩接踵，是长安十分壮观的景象。当时，在灞桥旁还设有灞亭，供人话别。起身告别时，人们折柳相赠。 折柳与送别相联系，最早出自《诗经》：“昔我往矣，杨柳依依。” 柳与“留”谐音，折柳赠别，表达出对亲人、朋友的恋恋不舍。美丽的景色令人留恋，而杨柳低垂也使灞桥成为最有诗意的送别的桥。

　　于是古人在这里留下了许多感怀的诗句：李白《忆秦娥》中就有：“年年柳色，灞陵伤别”

　　的句子。后来人们又将灞桥叫作“销魂桥”， 流传着“年年伤别，灞桥风雪”的词句。

　　“折柳赠别”逐渐为文人骚客所乐道。送客至桥头折柳惜别，也就不只是灞桥独有。唐代的雍陶送客来到四川沱江上的“情尽桥”边，联想起灞桥的折柳赠别，提笔将桥名改作了“折柳桥”。

　　如今，出西安城向东走的人还是要穿过灞河，灞河上也建起了多座现代的新灞桥，只是，过往的人们可曾想到这里当年的垂柳依依，想到灞桥的送别情。

岁月流逝着清新的记忆，
但，
有一个记忆却让我难忘,
有一个名字常常进入我的梦乡。
啊!
大别山郎！
我的网友，我的兄弟，我的榜样。
忘不了,
你的文采非常，诗词歌赋，文章。
忘不了，
你豪迈奔放，热情洋溢。
忘不了，
你的友情，你的风流倜傥。
有你的日子,
我不知什么是寂寞。
有你的日子，
我的错误也变得顺理成章。
在论坛，你是我的老师，我的朋友，我的兄弟师长。
然而,
你突然不知了去向？
你不辞而别？不告而退？无影无踪？
论坛从此没了你的文章。
日子变得无奈，时间变得是那样的漫长......。
然而，
时间又让我找回了逝去的记忆，
这个记忆让我难忘。
有一个名字常常进入我的梦乡：
他就是：论坛的骄子，我们的朋友，大别山郎！

连环画是中国特有的最普及、最具民族性的大众艺术品种,能将“大俗”与“大雅”完美结合起来，深受人们喜爱。它以文学作品、故事（文学名著、历史故事、民间传说、奇闻轶事、传统神话、名人传记）或者现实生活等为题材，编成简明的文字脚本，再绘制成小型画幅。它使我们既可欣赏到画家精湛的绘画艺术，还可以品味到文学故事丰富的知识和艺术营养。一幅幅富有故事性，趣味性和知识性的精美图画令我们爱不释手，久久玩味。
     《红楼梦》是中国古典小说中一部极品之作，也是世界文学之宝。作者曹雪芹所刻划人物鲜明栩栩如生，故事描写细腻婉约，以贾宝玉和林黛玉一场生死恋情为主线，架构出贾、王、史、薛四大家庭的兴衰史，也凸现《红楼梦》一反传统大团圆结局的悲剧美学价值。“满纸荒唐言,一把辛酸泪；都云作者痴,谁解其中味? ”曹雪芹的一部石头记问世后引出了多少悲欢，下面就让我们通过《红楼梦》连环画一起进入这部传世巨作的艺术境界。

改变你一生的五句话  
 
 
　　第一句话是：优秀是一种习惯。

　　这句话是古希腊哲学家亚里士多德说的。如果说优秀是一种习惯，那么懒惰也是一种习
惯。人出生的时候，除了脾气会因为天性而有所不同，其他的东西基本都是后天形成的，是
家庭影响和教育的结果。所以，我们的一言一行都是日积月累养成的习惯。我们有的人形成
了很好的习惯，有的人形成了很坏的习惯。所以我们从现在起就要把优秀变成一种习惯，使
我们的优秀行为习以为常，变成我们的第二天性。让我们习惯性地去创造性思 考，习惯性地
去认真做事情，习惯性地对别人友好，习惯性地欣赏大自然。

　　注解：要会“装”，要持续的、不间断的“装”，装久了就成了真的了，就成了习惯了
，比如准时到会，每次都按时到会，你装装看，你装30年看看，装的时间长了就形成了习惯
。：）

　　第二句话是：生命是一种过程。

　　事情的结果尽管重要，但是做事情的过程更加重要，因为结果好了我们会更加快乐，但
过程使我们的生命充实。人的生命最后的结果一定是死亡，我们不能因此说我们的生命没有
意义。世界上很少有永恒。大学生谈恋爱，每天都在信誓旦旦地说我会爱你一辈子，这实际
上是不真实的。统计数据表明，大学生谈恋爱的100对里有 90对最后会分手，最后结婚了的
还有一半会离婚。你说爱情能永恒吗？所以最真实的说法是：“我今天，此时此刻正在真心
地爱着你。”明天也许你会失恋，失恋后我们会体验到失恋的痛苦。这种体验也是丰富你生
命的一个过程。

　　注解：生命本身其实是没有任何意义的，只是你自己赋予你的生命一种你希望实现的意
义，因此享受生命的过程就是一种意义所在。

　　第三句话是：两点之间最短的距离并不一定是直线。

　　在人与人的关系以及做事情的过程中，我们很难直截了当就把事情做好。我们有时需要
等待，有时需要合作，有时需要技巧。我们做事情会碰到很多困难和障碍，有时候我们并不
一定要硬挺、硬冲，我们可以选择有困难绕过去，有障碍绕过去，也许这样做事情更加顺利
。大家想一想，我们和别人说话还得想想哪句话更好听呢。尤其在中国这个比较复杂的社会
中，大家要学会想办法谅解别人，要让人觉得你这个人很成熟，很不错，你才能把事情做成
。

　　注解：如果你在考数学试题，一定要答两点之间直线段最短，如果你在走路，从A到B，
明明可以直接过去，但所有人都不走，你最好别走，因为有陷阱。在中国办事情，直线性思
维在很多地方要碰壁，这是中国特色的中国处事方式。

　　第四句话是：只有知道如何停止的人才知道如何加快速度。

　　我在滑雪的时候，最大的体会就是停不下来。我刚开始学滑雪时没有请教练，看着别人
滑雪，觉得很容易，不就是从山顶滑到山下吗？于是我穿上滑雪板，哧溜一下就滑下去了，
结果我从山顶滑到山下，实际上是滚到山下，摔了很多个跟斗。我发现根本就不知道怎么停
止、怎么保持平衡。最后我反复练习怎么在雪地上、斜坡上停下来。练了一个星期，我终于
学会了在任何坡上停止、滑行、再停止。这个时候我就发现自己会滑雪了，就敢从山顶高速
地往山坡下冲。因为我知道只要我想停，一转身就能停下来。只要你能停下来，你就不会撞
上树、撞上石头、撞上人，你就不会被撞死。因此，只有知道如何停止的人，才知道如何高
速前进。

　　注解：用汽车来比喻，宝马可以上200公里，奇瑞却只能上120公里，为什么？发动机估
计不相上下，差距在刹车系统，上了200公里刹不了车，呵呵，我的天！

　　第五句话是：放弃是一种智慧，缺陷是一种恩惠。

　　当你拥有六个苹果的时候，千万不要把它们都吃掉，因为你把六个苹果全都吃掉，你也
只吃到了六个苹果，只吃到了一种味道，那就是苹果的味道。如果你把六个苹果中的五个拿
出来给别人吃，尽管表面上你丢了五个苹果，但实际上你却得到了其他五个人的友情和好感
。以后你还能得到更多，当别人有了别的水果的时候，也一定会和你分享，你会从这个人手
里得到一个橘子，那个人手里得到一个梨，最后你可能就得到了六种不同的水果，六种不同
的味道，六种不同的颜色，六个人的友谊。人一定要学会用你拥有的东西去换取对你来说更
加重要和丰富的东西。所以说，放弃是一种智慧。

语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction

1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

2. What is Linguistics(语言学)
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).

4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.

II. Phonetics(语音学）

1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.

2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）

3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）

4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)

III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.

2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.

3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.

4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not
produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.

5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment

6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.

IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）

2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.

3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.

4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.

5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.

6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.

7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.

8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.

9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.

10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）

11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.

V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.

2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .

3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc.

4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.

5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.

6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.

7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.

VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系）

2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）

3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.

4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer."

5. functionalism (功能主义）：Functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）
. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only  be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.

6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）

7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.

VII. Language Variation (语言变化）
1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.

2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.

3. Compounding:(合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.

4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.

5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.

6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword.

7. Metanalysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.

8. Back-formation:(逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word
is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.

9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs.

10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.

11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化）

12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.

13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）

14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.




语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction

1. What is Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

2. What is Linguistics(语言学)
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).

4.The Scope of Linguistics
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.

II. Phonetics(语音学）

1. scope of phonetics
Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.
Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.

2. The vocal organs
The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）

3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）

4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)

III. Phonology（音韵学）
1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.

2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.

3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.

4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not
produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.

5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment

6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.

IV. Morphology（词法）
1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）

2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.

3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.

4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.

5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.

6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.

7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.

8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.

9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.

10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）

11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.

V. Syntax (句法）
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.

2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .

3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc.

4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.

5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.

6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.

7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.

VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系）

2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）

3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.

4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer."

5. functionalism (功能主义）：Functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）
. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only  be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.

6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）

7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.

VII. Language Variation (语言变化）
1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.

2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.

3. Compounding:(合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.

4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.

5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.

6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword.

7. Metanalysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.

8. Back-formation:(逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word
is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.

9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs.

10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.

11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化）

12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.

13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）

14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.
from:24en.com

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　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　感谢盘古

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